Η ύπαρξη του μύκητα Brettanomyces διαπιστώθηκε για πρώτη φορά στις αγγλικές μπύρες και κατόπιν ερευνών στους οίνους της Βουργουνδίας. Μπορεί να είναι παρών στο αμπέλι, μα συγχρόνως υπάρχουν υποθέσεις διάδοσής του, μέσω της δροσòφιλας. Η παρουσία του είναι γνωστή σε οινοποιεία σε όλο τον κόσμο, αποδεικνύοντας έτσι την προσαρμογή του σε συνθήκες διαφορετικών κλιμάτων. Με την είσοδο του σε ένα οινοποιείο μολύνει τις πορώδεις επιφάνειες, κυρίως το ξύλο βαρελιών, τσιμεντένιες δεξαμενές και αντλίες μεταφοράς του οίνου, ενώ μπορεί να προσβάλλει τους υπό παλαίωση οίνους, ακόμη και στη φιάλη. Γενικά, η παρουσία του διαπιστώνεται, όπου δεν εφαρμόζονται συχνές πρακτικές υγιεινής.

Δεν αποτελεί μύκητα ανταγωνιστικό προς τον Saccharomyces cerevisiae, μια και αναπτύσσει δραστηριότητα μετά την αλκοολική ζύμωση, που παρατείνεται για αρκετούς μήνες ή και χρόνια. Τούτο αποδεικνύει ότι μεγαλύτερο κίνδυνο προσβολής διατρέχουν οι «μεγάλοι» οίνοι παλαίωσης. Από το μεταβολισμό του, με μια συγκεκριμένη διπλή ενζυματική δραστηριότητα πάνω στα υδροξυκινναμωμικα οξέα (κουμαρικò και φερουλικò οξύ), παράγονται κατά κύριο λόγο πτητικές φαινόλες (4-βινυλ-φαινòλη, 4-βινυλ-γουαιακòλη, 4-αιθυλ-φαινòλη, 4-αιθυλ-γουαιακòλη). Αυτές οδηγούν στην απώλεια του φρουτώδους χαρακτήρα, προσδίδοντας στους ερυθρούς οίνους νότες δέρματος, γαρύφαλλου, βερνικιού, βρεγμένου μαλλιού / χαρτιού, στάβλου, νότες φαρμακευτικές. Αυτές οι δυσάρεστες οσμές που ορίζονται ως «χαρακτήρας Brett» δεν αποτελούν κίνδυνο για την υγεία του καταναλωτή, μονάχα ποιοτική υποβάθμιση του προϊόντος.

Για την καταπολέμηση του Brettanomyces, όταν η παρουσία του είναι διακριτική, μπορεί να πραγματοποιηθεί ανάμειξη του οίνου με άλλο, υγιή και διαύγαση. Σε εκτεταμένες προσβολές, η χρήση απορροφητικού άνθρακα και πρωτεϊνικών κολλών δεν καταφέρνουν να μειώσουν μεγάλες ποσότητες πτητικών φαινολών, η χρήση αντίστροφης ώσμωσης δεν είναι επιλεκτική σε πτητικές ουσίες και το νανοφιλτράρισμα είναι πρακτική μή επιτρεπτή στην Ε.Ε. Ο καλύτερος τρόπος αποφυγής της μόλυνσης είναι η πρόληψη, με τακτικό καθάρισμα των βαρελιών πραγματοποιώντας κύκλους πλυσίματός τους με νερό κρύο και ζεστό, ατμό και κάψιμο θείου για αποτελεσματική αποστείρωση. Μερικοί επίσης χρησιμοποιούν το όζον με αρκετά καλά αποτελέσματα. Απομένει κατά συνέπεια να γίνει αποδεκτό το γεγονός ότι ο φαινολικός χαρακτήρας ορισμένων οίνων δεν είναι φυσικό αποτέλεσμα ενός terroir, αλλά απόρροια μόλυνσης, τις περισσότερες φορές οφειλόμενη στην πολυετή χρήση, όχι καλά διατηρημένων δρύινων βαρελιών.

I lieviti del genere Brettanomyces sono conosciuti principalmente dai lavori fatti sui mosti delle birre inglesi ed in seguito nei vini della Borgogna. Può essere presente nel vigneto, ma non si conosce il suo mezzo di propagazione, anche se si pensa che venga trasmesso da insetti, quali la Drosophila melanogaster. Nella maggior parte dei casi la presenza di Brettanomyces è stata rilevata in cantine di tutto il mondo, dimostrando che si adatta a tutte le condizioni e a tutti i climi. Una volta giunto in cantina, questo microrganismo può colonizzare tutti i materiali porosi, soprattutto il legno e le vasche in cemento mal vetrificate. Inoltre, la sua presenza è stata riscontrata sui depositi organici nelle pompe utilizzate per il trasferimento dei mosti. In generale lo sviluppo di Brettanomyces si osserva dove si adottano scarse pratiche di igiene della cantina.

Questo lievito é in grado di svilupparsi nel vino in corso di affinamento o in bottiglia e dal suo metabolismo, grazie alla degradazione degli acidi idrossicinnamici, produce composti di odore sgradevole definiti fenoli volatili e più specificatamente 4-etil-fenolo e 4-etil-guaiacolo. Questi composti sono riconducibili ai descrittori di panno bagnato, urina di topo, stalla, medicinale, lana bagnata, cuoio, garofano e vernice. Lo sviluppo di questi aromi indesiderati viene definita “nota Brett”.

Lo sviluppo dei fenoli volatili nei vini è dovuto ad una doppia attività enzimatica che ha come substrati iniziali gli acidi idrossicinnamici, già presenti nelle uve di partenza e si ritrovano nel vino (l’acido p-cumarico e l’acido ferulico). Brettanomyces è un lievito con scarsa attitudine fermentativa, infatti non compete con Saccharomyces cerevisiae e il suo sviluppo avviene solo dopo la fine della fermentazione. Anche se questi lieviti sono stati isolati da mosti in fermentazione, la loro presenza sembra associata ai vini in corso di affinamento. Inoltre, avendo un metabolismo molto lento, può continuare a svolgere la sua attività anche dopo parecchi mesi o anni. Questo indica che i vini che corrono più pericoli sono quelli di pregio, che subiscono lunghi periodi di affinamento e di conservazione soprattutto in legno.

La comparsa dei fenoli volatili nei vini porta alla perdita degli aromi floreali, però non costituiscono un pericolo per il consumatore, ma solo un’alterazione qualitativa.

Se l’alterazione sviluppata da Brettanomyces è lieve, è possibile mascherare l’effetto negativo con dei tagli con altri vini e chiarifiche. Se, invece, l’alterazione sviluppata si presenta molto marcata gli interventi curativi hanno scarsa efficacia, infatti ad oggi non esistono coadiuvanti enologici consentiti dalla legislazione in grado di rimuovere in maniera selettiva i fenoli volatili prodotti dal microrganismo. Coadiuvanti come i carboni adsorbenti e l’impiego di trattamenti di chiarifica con colle proteiche (gelatina, albumine, proteine vegetali, colle di pesce) non riescono a rimuovere percentuali elevate di etilfenoli. L’applicazione dell’osmosi inversa sul vino ha dato ottimi risultati per l’asportazione degli etilfenoli, tuttavia risulta scarsamente selettiva nei confronti di numerose sostanze volatili. Con la nanofiltrazione si ottengono dei buoni risultati, però questa pratica non è ammessa nei paesi Europei.

La miglior arma per combattere Brettanomyces è la prevenzione nei confronti dell’inquinamento microbiologico. Le barrique devono essere lavate o con cicli di acqua calda e acqua fredda o con insuflazione diretta di vapore per ottenere una buona sanificazione e successivamente trattate con dischetti di zolfo che bruciando, in condizioni di chiusura ermetica, sterilizzano le doghe. Alcuni fanno anche uso dell’ozone con dei risultati soddisfacenti. Concludendo, il carattere fenolico presente in alcuni vini non è una conseguenza naturale del terroir,ma appare di essere il risultato dell’uso dei barrique mal preservati ed utillizzati per parecchi anni.

Απόσπασμα από την παρουσίαση : «Μια προσέγγιση στην αντίληψη των καταναλωτών για τον οίνο»

Μάιος 2010

Την Δεκαετία του 70’ και του 80’ η εταιρεία Pepsi πραγματοποίησε μια διαφημιστική καμπάνια, την “Pepsi Challenge” οπού καταναλώτες δοκίμαζαν τυφλά Pepsi και Coke. Κατά την διάρκεια των δοκιμασιών η πλειονότητα των καταναλωτών προτιμούσαν την Pepsi, ωστόσο η προτίμηση τους αυτή δεν αποτυπωνόταν και στις πωλήσεις της Pepsi.

Με αφορμή το παραπάνω γεγονός , ο Dr Read Montague το 2004 διεξήξαγε ένα πολύ ενδιαφέρον πείραμα. Επανέλαβε το “ Pepsi Challenge” παρακαλουθώντας, αυτή την φορα, την εγκεφαλική δραστηριότητα των εθελοντών που συμμετείχαν στο πείραμα, χρησιμοποιώντας την τεχνολογία της functional MRΙ.

Για την κατανόηση της αντίφασης μεταξύ της ευχαρίστησης και της αγοραστικής προτίμησης, ο Δρ. Montague έκανε δυο σειρές δοκιμών. Αρχικά, έδωσε στους εθελοντές να δοκιμάσουν «τυφλά» Pepsi & Coke και διαπιστωσε πως η Pepsi δημιουργούσε πολύ μεγαλύτερο ερέθισμα στην περιοχή του εγκεφάλου που σχετίζεται με την διαδικασία της επιβράβευσης – ευχαρίστησης.

Όταν όμως ο Δρ. Montague επανέλαβε το πείραμα γνωστοποιώντας στους εθελόντες τι πίνουν , παραδόξως πλέον οι περισσότεροι προτίμησαν την Coke. Επιπλέον, η εγκεφαλική δραστηριότητα άλλαξε διεγείροντας την περιοχή του εγκεφάλου που συνδέεται με την σκέψη και την κρίση. Οι εθέλοντες ουσιαστικά διαμόρφωναν την προτίμηση τους όχι ανάλογα με την ευχαρίστηση – επιβράβευση αλλά με την αντίληψη που είχαν για το προϊόν “Brand Image” .

Τα αποτελέσματα συνδέονται άμεσα με την διαδικασία την δοκιμής οίνων. Όταν δεν δοκιμάζουμε τυφλά, η κρίση μας είναι πιθανόν να διαμορφωθεί από την προηγούμενη γνώση και αντίληψη για το κρασί που δοκιμάζουμε, αν και όπως δηλώνει Δρ. Montague η παρουσία αλκόολ μπορεί να διαφοροποιήσει τα πραγματα.

Ένα ακόμα πείραμα που πραγματοποιήθηκε με την μέθοδο της f -MRI είχε στόχο να διακρίνει τον τρόπο που καταναλώνουν το κράσι, οι οινικοί επαγγελμάτιες (π.χ. Sommelier) και οι απλοί καταναλώτες. Τα αποτελέσματα ήταν εντυπωσιακά κάθως στους απλούς καταναλώτες ενεργοποιούταν η περιοχή που συνδέεται με την απόλαυση ενώ στην περίπτωση των sommelier η περιοχή της αντίληψης.

Μήπως λοιπόν πρέπει να παραμερίσουμε τις ατέλειωτες «άχρηστες»πληροφορίες, να απομυθοποιήσουμε το οίνο και να απολαύσουμε το κράσι σαν απλοί «κατανάλωτες», ως μέρος ενός γεύματος με φίλους, απλών καθημέρινων ή ακόμα και ιδιαίτερων – μοναδικών στιγμών;

When Nico Manessis and I first talked about this article, I had it all laid out in my mind. I was to unite the two loves of my life, wine and fashion (my little lovie Urania is beyond compare), and talk about parallel lives, about fashion and wine as powerful partners in contemporary lifestyles and expressions of conspicuous consumption.

However, the economic crisis has since forced us to tighten our belts even more and I felt compelled to factor this into the equation. What are our ‘Responses to the Recession’? How do companies cope in the current economic crisis? Are tight-spending consumers now in charge or can companies still drive buying behaviour? Will the market polarise into a world of ultra-luxury products for the “haves” and super-inexpensive ones for the “have-nots”? How can we attempt to answer these questions, when entire economies collapse around us like dominoes?

Let’s begin by taking a brief look at the consumer and their buying behaviour to survive the crunch. An ING survey this year, which interviewed 11,000 people in nine countries, found that people have embraced a “cocooning” culture created by the financial crisis. We have become domestic hedonists, spending more time at home as the crisis bites.

Another study, conducted by psychologists at Cornell University, found that ‘experiences’ are more rewarding than ‘things’. According to the study, experiences are so effective at making us happy because we truly ‘own’ them. They become integrated into our characters and help shape our personalities. Andrea Pfeffer, Director at the Sales and PR agency Robinson Pfeffer, agrees: “The new luxury is about experience,” she suggests. “Ultimately, the shopper wants to feel personally connected to the brand.”

So one new trend is experience branding and experience retailing. Another one – actually linked to the previous one – is to buy things that are painstakingly hand-built instead of efficiently mass-produced. Architect and writer Steve Mouzon wrote near the beginning of this meltdown: “So I believe that the meltdown will begin to cause people to think long-term again, and to begin to value enduring things.”

In this vein, Tokyo-based designer Junya Tashiro describes his creations as “clothes that will mature,” aging like a fine wine, but also becoming more comfortable like an old sofa or favorite sweater. “The more you wear and wash your clothes, the more they become familiar to you, and the more you feel comfortable in them,” Tashiro explains. “If apparel has a nice feel to it to begin with, after 5 years, or 10 years, you will think ‘this is better now than when I bought it.’ I want to make apparel based on the idea that good clothing doesn’t get old, but matures.”

Choosing organic, believing in sustainable development, adopting a (frugal) green living stance and embracing the reduce/reuse/recycle motto is the way a lot of consumers (from various income groups) and companies alike have chosen to cope with the crisis.

Some companies choose to maintain a sense of exclusivity, by targeting specialised distribution channels; these are faring well under the current economic climate. Companies are also altering their public perception and developing a dialogue with customers through social media websites, such as Facebook, YouTube and Twitter. Brands are now in a position where failure to nurture ‘genuine’ relationships with their customers may result in decreased sales, negative brand association and, ultimately, a failed enterprise. Trend analyst Dion Chang signaled the start of an “empathetic economy”, in which “value systems changed drastically” and companies, communities and families collaborated to survive. Whether we’re talking about wine, fashion or any other kind of business.

To end this brief foray into consumer behaviour and marketing strategies of the economic crisis, in relation to wine and fashion, on a pleasant note, I will introduce you to some ‘Evochia’. Evochia is the ancient Greek word for the mirth and conviviality present at a symposium. Evochia is also an organic food shop near my house, where I met Dimitris Theocharidis. The shop belongs to his family and, after he’d completed his B.A (Hons) at the London College of Fashion, I met him there, designing his clothes and selling wine and calendula baby creams.

Then Dimitris returned to London and teamed up with fellow graduate Jenny Holmes to create JENA.THEO. They then went on to win the highly coveted Fashion Fringe at Covent Garden 2009, chaired by Donatella Versace, with a “recession-proof” collection inspired by womens’ sexual revolution movements, from ancient Crete all the way through to the ‘60s.

What is their next collection going to be? “Maybe we can call it Times of Crisis”, they say. “We wish to celebrate the century that has just gone. We have looked at times of crisis through the 20th century from the French Resistance, the depression of the 30s through to the recession in the 90s.” We wish them all the best.

There are glowing reports, on Alsace and Bordeaux. In Greece, it was a difficult vintage. Technicians are still scratching their heads. With no doubt, this year has thrown up formidable challenges in vineyard management. There were fewer regional patterns of uniformity. Suddenly, the already fragmented vineyard has become one of baffling changes. During my month-long autumn tour, a common thread emerged: ‘Sudden (weather) changes.’ In many ways, a strange year, with unusual weather upheaval. More than in any previous year, there was a larger period of cloud cover, which helped the aromatic varieties. North-western Greece was mildew-ridden, eventually ending with rotten grapes. Yet, for some pockets, especially on islands specialising in white wines, straight-talking producers said ‘unusual but good’. Broadly speaking, the year championed the most diligent farmers. Greediness, in red grapes especially, was punished. Those risk-takers triumphed who waited long enough to get ripe pips and the pH’s in ‘windows’ where it made sense to pick.

Epirus & Macedonia

Heavy spring and unusual early-summer rains caught most growers in Amyndeon, Goumenissa, and Naoussa unprepared. Mildew was omnipresent. One farmer I visited was ‘praying’ for a mini heat wave. It never materialised. In hotter and usually dry Drama, it is the year of freshness, lacking the usual heat imprint. One of several pleasant surprises.

Sterea Ellada

The weeklong fires in north-eastern Athens suburbs were an ecological disaster. Adjacent vineyards were affected with smoke taint. Ironically, the vineyards not close to these ravaging fires benefited from the early September rains. By the time harvest begun around September 10, the old-vine Savatiano came up with good, if not great, wines. Even at a usefully low 12.3% ABV, they are brimming with typicity. Further north, in Boeotia and onto the nearby island of Evia, the imported grapes are quite good. There is bright fruit and all-around freshness. Syrah was a near star.

Peloponnesus

The northern shoreline and Patra was average and lower. The usually dependable high-altitude Roditis of Aigialia was not helped by the higher yields. Nemea had not faced such early rains since the 2002 wash-out. Storms broke out on September 6. The weather held for four days, and the heavens opened. The ugly face of politics, in the broader sense, appeared with a promise of subsidies. Some things never change. Therefore, only 2,000 tonnes of healthy grapes were harvested from the estimated 18,000 tonnes. Old bush vines, of which there are few, made little but decent wine. All high-yield vineyards are at best weak to poor. ‘Anaemic’ was one farmer’s succinct comment. Mantinia: The landlocked plateau right in the middle of the grape garden of Greece. Summer rains and cooler temperatures helped the blanc de gris Moschofilero maintain its aromatic profile and balance. For the most part there are good wines. The best-farmed sites excelled.

Ionian Islands

Cephalonia: The island which challenges Santorini for one-of-a-kind, bone-dry wine, is Cephalonian Robola. Winter and perfectly timed spring rainfall increased from an average (2002-2008) of annual participation of 600-800 ml. to 1,250 ml. For the time being, it appears that normality has returned. Southern-facing slopes retained moisture throughout summer. June showers affected the valley of Saint Gerassimos at 600 m. but not the southern-facing high slopes which reach up to 800 m. The vines looked healthy green with no external signs (yellowing leaf) of water stress. Grapes were harvested ten days later than in 2008. Ripening evenly, bringing out super fruit and, early on, their minerality. Acidities are amongst the highest ever. An unqualified success, with crisp, minerally wines that capture the limestone-dominated terroir.

Aegean Islands

Samos: The source of great fortified (and a little unfortified) dessert Muscat. Winter and early summer showers and the absence of heat-waves have propelled it amongst the top-performing island vineyards. Floral and zesty aromas. Vibrancy, in all styles. Santorini, which lies 35N, never ceases to amaze me. This far south and with the desiccating winds one does not usually mention malic acid. Yet, spring and summer was cool enough for 1.5 gr./l. of malic acid to be present at harvest time. As a veteran put it: ‘In twenty harvests I have never encountered malic acid’. Grape picking commenced the first week of August and then it turned… cold! Conscientious winemakers stopped. Nocturnal temperatures dropped, maturity inched at snail’s pace forward. Harvest recommenced August 16th. First impressions? Atypical Santorinis. A notch lower in alcohol levels, juxtaposed with terrific, new to me on this island, grapefruit-citrus aromas that carry through on the palate. Rhodes: The south-eastern Aegean island and the template for Athiri. In off vintages this island usually comes up top. Not this time. Mostly average. More complex with good body wherever the grapes matured in the earlier part of the harvest. As our friends in America say, ‘go figure’. Crete: The white wines from central Crete are exceptional, highlighting the floral spicy character of the Vilana grape. Wines of character and lift. The reds are a mixed bag: Only the best-managed vineyards produced great fruit. Wines have soft tannins. Heavy rains on September 11-12 created havoc on the latter-harvested reds.
Time may prove me wrong. I will stick my neck out on this. During my 16-year beat, the near- clockwork regular, variations on a theme, across-the-board quality of Greek harvests (with the odd washout as in 2002) has been confined to statistical records. Lack of rainfall, when needed, extended heat waves, higher nocturnal temperatures and, above all, ‘sudden changes’ have brought new issues and challenges to this eastern Mediterranean vineyard. My point? Vines have genes that have adapted to local conditions. With the climatic parameters now ‘stretched’, we have sailed into uncharted territory. So far, the only benefit from all of these weather vagaries is communication. The increased dialogue between farmers, agronomists, oenologists and nurseries is nothing short of fascinating. There is plenty to think about.

Συγκεκριμένα, σε μάθημα αμπελουργίας με καθηγητή του πανεπιστημίου του Βordeaux διδαχτήκαμε τον επιστημονικό ορισμό: Η έννοια του terroir αναφέρεται στη σχέση των χαρακτηριστικών ενός αγροτικού προιόντος (ποιότητα, γεύση , στυλ) και της γεωγραφικής του προέλευσης. Μπορεί να περιγραφεί ως ένα διαδραστικό οικοσύστημα, σε ένα δεδομένο χώρο, που περιέχει το κλίμα, το έδαφος και την άμπελο(Senguin,1988). Χρησιμοποιείται συχνά ως κριτήριο στην ιεράρχηση των οίνων υψηλής ποιότητας. Οι ερευνητές στην περιοχή του Βordeaux προσπαθούν να δώσουν την τεκμηριωμένη επιστημονική απόδειξη της υπαρκτή επιρροής της έκφρασης του Terroir στο κρασί. Τα αποτελέσματα βέβαια αυτής της έρευνας θα αργήσουν να ανακοινωθούν καθώς το εγχείρημα που ξεκίνησαν είναι πραγματικά χρονοβόρο και δύσκολο.

Μέχρι να δοθεί η επιστημονική απόδειξη, σίγουρα όσοι κοιτούν με καχυποψία τους παραδοσιακούς οινοποιούς θα συνεχίσουν να θεωρούν την προώθηση της ιδέας του Τerroir ως μία πολύ παλιά, πολύ προσεχτικά οργανωμένη στρατηγική  του  Μarketing . Ο καθηγητής του μαθήματος Business of Wine ερχόμενος από τη Γερμανία έδωσε τη δική του προσέγγιση στο θέμα με μια και μόνο λέξη: BULLSHIT! Πολλοί θεωρούν την παραγωγή κρασιού τέχνη αλλά επίσης απαιτείται ένα καλοστημένο σκηνικό για την προώθηση του. Κάθε μπουκάλι μοιάζει σαν να τυλίγεται από μια μικρή ιστορία, όσο καλύτερα τη λες, τόσο περισσότεροι σε πιστεύουν, τόσα περισσότερα τα κέρδη.
Άραγε στην Ελλάδα ποια από τις δύο απόψεις αξιοποιούμε;

Τσουρνάβα Έφη

Irrigation is the most controllable vineyard management technique in determining grape and wine quality under semi-arid conditions

Traditionally grapevine was a nonirrigated crop covering extended areas in semi-arid regions. However, the current climate changes (significant rise in average growth season temperature and evapotranspiration) have increased drought impacts on vine productivity and grape quality. On the other hand, it is well known that, to produce wines according to the quality specifications of today’s wine market (especially red ones), grapevine varieties have to be grown under environmental stress that most commonly implies a limitation of water availability in certain stages of vine growth cycle. Extensive research and practical experience over the last two decades in vineyards worldwide have shown that moderate water deficit increases berry quality potential (via shoot growth cessation, reduction of berry size, steady ripening process and stimulation of phenolic and aroma compound synthesis) and winery net profits (despite reducing yields in most cases). Moreover, irrigation remains the single most controllable factor in determining grape and wine quality (especially in areas where summer rainfall is scarce) and, thus, is a key factor in vineyard management for achieving both high quality standards and substantial economies in water resources.

Recently, irrigation was introduced in Greece to minimize unfavourable impacts of excessive water stress and ensure the regular production of high quality grapes and wines. Moreover, proper irrigation has been proved to facilitate the expression of the distinctive characteristics of Greece’s numerous indigenous varieties, thus enhancing wine “typicity” which normally generates a higher selling potential (and which was until recently “buried” under the frequently oxidized flavour of average greek wines, mainly because of excessively stressful water conditions in the vineyard).

The irrigation strategy usually applied in order to reduce water supply during specific stages of vine growth has been termed regulated deficit irrigation (RDI). The principle of RDI is to apply a water deficit of variable intensity according to the objectives of grape production, i.e. white wines, light red wines to be drunk when young, long-ageing red wines etc. For example, for the production of aromatic white wines, only a light water restriction is desirable (especially in warm areas) to conserve grape varietal aromas. The same is also true for rose or fruity red wines. On the contrary, a more pronounced water deficit during green berry development (berry set to veraison) is necessary for premium-quality red wines in order to reduce berry size and yield, limit vegetative growth to create a more open canopy and impove grape microclimate and stimulate the accumulation of phenolic compounds which are essential for wine ageing.

However, due perhaps to the need for important investments in management equipment, the majority of vine-growers in Greece still decide irrigation application based on personal experience and habits, or, at best, according to seasonal weather conditions. Nevertheless, as water resources become limited and as wine quality is acknowledged as more important than yield in determining winery profits, the demand for accurate assessment of vine water status through the use of adapted indicators is becoming more often, especially in boutique wineries, oriented towards the production of high quality wines of distinctive character.

Among the various monitoring techniques used worldwide to define vine hydric condition, stem water potential has been proved to be the most reliable. The basic apparatus for the measurement of stem water potential is the so-called “pressure chamber (or pressure bomb)” which permits the placement of a leaf (formerly enclosed in opaque bags for at least one hour) in a sealed chamber leaving only the extremity of the petiole outside. Pressure is most commonly applied through the deliverance of inert gas (nitrogen) and the pressure necessary to extract the first drop of xylem sap from the leaf is recorded in a manometer, corresponding to the water potential of the stem bearing the leaf. The more negative the water potential, the greater the water deficit of the vine. Midday stem water potential values can thus be used as thresholds for irrigation management, depending on the variety and the desired wine style. Lowest (more negative) values are desirable for red varieties destined for the production of premium red wines while higher (close to zero) are better for aromatic white, rose/red wines.

Of course, research is continuing in scientific establishments to develop an easier and less time-consuming technique for water status assessment. However, the accuracy and reproducibility of this technique has not yet been surpassed. That’s why it remains an invaluable tool for vine growers and winemakers for irrigation management.

See Stephanos on Videos: Measuring water stress.

As a little girl growing up in Washington, D.C. it was always my dream to eventually move to Greece. Having vacationed in Crete religiously every summer I knew that one day I would end up on this mythical island where everything seemed heavenly. After graduating from Washington International School I set off for the other city I loved, New York, where I attended New York University.

There I studied Business Administration, Art and Hellenic Studies at the Gallatin School of Individualized Study.  It was at NYU that I was able to cultivate even more my fascination with Greece and, more specifically, with Crete. I tried tapping into my roots by becoming president of the Hellenic Heritage Association (a club for students of Greek origin on campus) and I started to learn about Modern Greek history and focused my studies on Modern Greek identity.  I spent my weekends at Greek clubs in Astoria, Queens and you could say I was as much in the Greek world of America as I could be at that point.

Shortly after graduating I put off my dream of moving to Greece and took a job in real estate marketing and sales. That is when reality hit. All of a sudden there weren’t enough hours in the day and stress was the adrenaline that kept me going; Greece was far from my mind. According to American culture, I was exactly where I should have been. I had a great job with a salary that I hadn’t even dreamed of at 21 years old.  My job was defined by long hours and high levels of stress with the not so infrequent phone calls from developers cursing and wondering why a deal hadn’t gone through.

Summer came around and I was determined to go to Greece. I had five working days vacation time so I took a ten day trip to Crete-my shortest ever. Although many of you reading this may think that ten days is plenty of time, I was used to at least a month on the island that was my second home. I left Crete that summer with the usual feeling of emptiness but this time that feeling was just too consuming. I started thinking about how my life would end up. If I stayed at my job I potentially could have had everything set (the economic crisis hadn’t set on at this point). I’d have a great job in one of the best cities in the world where I would be living the over glorified “Sex and the City” lifestyle. But then what? This question plagued me. Was this it? What about my plans to try out life in Greece? I examined the people around me and focused on their preoccupation with material things and started to become worried that this superficial life would get the best of me. I had to get out of there. I had to live out my dreams before it was too late. But what would I do in Greece?

Now is the time for me to tell you that in 1993, my father established the Manousakis Winery here in Crete. But all I knew about wine was how to drink it in hefty quantities…

As I was struggling with my decision to move to Greece my dad had been planning to build a new winery in Crete. We spoke about the possibilities and he suggested for me to head the building of the new winery in order to get a taste of what construction is like in Greece (because as hard as it might be in the States, he said, it will be 10 times harder in Greece). So the plan was that after the completion of the new winery, we would explore real estate opportunities.

So after 6 years of living in New York I packed up my bags in August of 2007 and left the city that never sleeps and arrived to the city that has a daily 3 hour siesta.

This is when I got my second dose of reality… It is important to keep in mind that for me Greece, and especially Crete, was number one. It was paradise. I couldn’t imagine that anything could go wrong in this land of perfection.

I started working as of September 1^st. At that time my family was still visiting from the States and my job basically consisted of going to meetings with my dad and trying to get familiar with the different people, the wines, the lifestyle etc. A few weeks later the time came for my dad to leave and all of a sudden my schedule was pretty empty. Still being a New Yorker at heart, I had no idea what to do… the anxiety of not having stress was overwhelming. The laid back attitude on the island started to suffocate me. I would go run errands (the few I had at that point) and the shop owner would invite me to sit down and have a cup of coffee… “COFFEE?? In the middle of the day? How can I possibly relax with a cup of coffee during business hours?” These thoughts occurred daily for me. It took me quite some time to realize that I didn’t need to go at warp speed in order to get things done here.

Each day brought along a new problem. I was trying to get adjusted on many different levels; I had to learn to do business in Greek.  Not only that, but I had to learn the “Greek way” of doing business in Greek.  I also had to sort my personal life out. From getting my national ID card to paying my first month’s rent, I was moving blindly and was perpetually confused.

Coming from a city where every transaction is done online and all information about documentation needed for certain services can be found simply by clicking “submit” made me feel completely lost my first few months here. I would call friends to ask them where the bank was, or where the tax office was or where I had to go to pay my phone bills. I would call to be reminded of the word I needed to say when I got to the customs office in order to send an order of wines to Cyprus. It was madness. I had never felt so out of my element in all my life. The shock hit me hard because I thought everything would be easy. I made the assumption that things would flow just as smoothly as they did for me in New York. Boy was I wrong.

As the months rolled by, I slowly started to understand what to expect in different situations and that allowed me to focus on the winery. I deal with the business aspect of the winery; the marketing, the PR, the accounting etc. Being that I had never studied anything about wine I was once again, a fish out of water. I started reading articles on the wine world and meeting people with a great deal of knowledge of the industry and all of a sudden 1+1 started to equal 2 again. The world of wine is so rich and complex that I can say I have never been bored. The lifestyle that managing a winery offers is one that the New York me could only dream of for about 1.5 seconds a day.

The brand name of our wines is “Nostos”. This seems rather fitting in this story because the word nostos means “returning home” in ancient Greek and is the root word of nostalgia. My decision to come to Greece has been in its own way my return home, or at the very least my return to my roots.

After nearly two years of living in Chania I can say that the shock of having to wait 6 months to get internet has worn off and that all of the amazing things that this island has to offer in terms of quality of living outweigh the hassles that you need to overcome in order to get the ball rolling.

Most first generation Greek-Americans dream of moving to the Greece that their parents left. Most come thinking exactly as I did- Greece is heaven. A lot of them leave after having dealt with similar aggravations as the ones I mentioned above. But for everyone who is considering taking the leap I would say go for it. One quote that has stuck with me is something that one of my coworkers said to me just before I left New York: “Sometimes you need to change things up, give yourself a bit of a scare to feel alive.”

Mike Jones is the assistant winemaker at Gentilini. In this report he shares insight from his unique experience in working on two very different island vineyards. NM

All is not well with the wineries of New Zealand. Too much commercial wine has been produced and they have reached a saturation point. The vinegrowers and big wineries have been too greedy with their yield over the past 20 years which has resulted in cheap wine for the masses which has been good for the wine trade. But is that what the market needs right now?

Upon arrival to the East Cape this year, the Gisborne Herald headlined a story that would upset any wine producer. ‘Grapegrowing Glut’ by Debbie Gregory (18^th Feb ‘09 http://www.gisborneherald.co.nz/) explained that Constellation were to blame for leaving what I found out to be a conservative estimate of 650 Tonne of varieties used to blend with Sauvignon Blanc, on the vine. These normally early ripeners meant that the season was put back 2 to 3 weeks which meant that most overseas workers were left to find other work for that space of time. I was one of those workers and so found a job pinning nets in the vineyards of Gisborne. This gave me a good opportunity to nose around and have a good look and compare with the vineyards of Kefalonia.

When I first came to Kefalonia in 2004, I was shown around the vineyards of the Omala Valley on behalf of Gentilini Winery as part of my Work Experience module for Plumpton College. These Robola vineyards are small, family run affairs taken on as part of the daily life on Kefalonia which, in turn, adds to the grand total of the annual income when the yield is sold to local wineries. Small, vibrant plots which oozed personality according to the character that managed them.

One particular vineyard that sticks in my memory from that first year is at 800 metres above sea level and is managed by 83 year old (back then) Mr Tsassis. With the thought of visiting some vineyards on some steep slopes, I had come prepared with my brand new heavy duty Caterpillar boots, which did not fair well on the awkward schist slopes of Mount Ainos with its absolutely stunning views. However, to watch Mr Tsassis almost gambol around in his boat shoes like he was 30 years old was a breath of fresh air. Ever since that year, his fruit has always been in tip top condition with yields you would expect for quality winemaking.

With those thoughts of Kefalonian terroir in my head, I headed off to work in the vineyards of Gisborne with my cold drink and sandwich box to keep me company. On the way, I noticed that the scale of thing was very different to the grape growing style of Greek life. No bush vines but long, neatly trellised rows which had been mechanically serviced in paddocks the size of Argostoli.

Upon arrival at a vineyard run by a local Maori trust close to the Ormond growing area of Gisborne I couldn’t help noticing that the vines were heavily laden with a pink variety. Gewurztraminer or Pinot Gris I thought. A quick taste told me the latter was the case and at around 14/15 brix it was about a month or 2 away from harvest. Pinot Gris had been heavily planted in the area around 4 to 5 years ago so I guessed this was the 2^nd year of fruit for these vines. A bit of research with one of the local workers confirmed this. ‘Far too many grapes on the vine’ I said. ‘Yes’ the local worker replied. ‘My boss wants me to take 3 bunches off each vine’. Wow, I thought. Only 3 bunches…… 3 kilos more like. I would have chopped 2 thirds off to keep the yields within line of producing any quality.

Now Pinot Gris, or Pinot Grigio if you are in Italy is a variety that has done the wine industry a lot of favours in the past. In its Italian incarnation, it has introduced many people to the delights of drinking white wine. Bars and pubs around Europe and the UK stock it as a reasonably cheap, quaffable alternative. For the more discernable drinker, Alsatian Pinot Gris has to be one of the most complex versions due to the uniqueness of the Vosges Mountains where, together with centuries of winemaking skills bring a more austere style. However, Pinot Gris has just found the Gisborne sun. Real fruit driven styles from wineries that keep their yields to a minimum are appearing from the smaller players. Careful vinification and oaking are making this a unique style and I think the big players should take note!

To conclude, New Zealand has the resources and know how to take wine making to another level. What it lacks is any appellation laws to achieve this. Laws should be written up and governed by a committee of vinegrowers, big and small. The big players should be punished for flouting these rules and encouragement and incentive should be given to all who abide by them.

It might at first seem outrageously oblique, but as I was re-reading recently Sun Tzu’s unsurpassed treaty The Art of War, I was struck by the lessons that could be drawn from the text and applied to the marketing of wine. And Greek wine comes to mind, having just returned from my fifth annual voyage to the cradle of the wine world. The purpose of the trip, in addition to judging at the 9^th annual international wine competition in Thessaloniki, was to participate in a “branding strategy session” to help shape the future promotional strategy for the wines of Greece. Along with a group of international, non-Greek ‘experts’ from the US, UK, Brazil and Russia in the fields of wine journalism and importation/distribution, I had been invited by PRC, a marketing/PR company hired by the Wines of Greece to come up with a promotional strategy for Greek wines. We were to take part in a tasting of potential ‘ambassador’ wines and weigh in with our outsider’s views on Greek wine grapes, wine styles, labeling and other promotional advantages and disadvantages of Greek wines in an international context.

On day one, we sat down to blind taste our way through about 70 wines divided into five flights: 4 flights of single-variety wines, two white and two red, and one flight of mixed sweet wines. The particular grapes, Moschofilero and Assyrtiko for whites and Agiorgitiko and Xinomavro for reds were pre-selected based on 11 different criteria, such as the number of producers and production levels of each. It obviously makes no sense to spearhead a promotional campaign using a grape grown by 1 or 2 producers in small quantities, no matter how interesting. The actual ‘quality’ of the wine produced from each grape was, interestingly enough, not one of the selection criteria – PRC has no resident wine experts – that was our job. Sweet wines were naturally included, given Greece’s ancient history of sweet wine production.

After each flight we were asked place each of the grapes and their resultant wine styles in an international context, comparing them with other similar grapes from around the world, identifying their strengths and weaknesses, comparable price categories, and ultimately whether we believed it was a suitable variety on which to pin the vinous ambitions of Hellas. It was a challenging and demanding intellectual exercise. But that was not all, of course. Later that afternoon we were asked to verbally share our views with an intimate panel of industry stakeholders and senior executives from PRC. Each of the panelists provided his views on each of the flights and their relative potential to be an ‘ambassador’ grape. And this, too, was merely a warm up for the big symposium to come on day two, where we had the opportunity to share our views to a gathering of about 150 winemakers and winery owners from across the country.

So how would the legendary Sun Tzu have looked upon the prospects of Greek wine, speaking to us from remote history over 25 centuries ago, and would he have anything useful to say? Let’s have a look.

Sun Tzu says: “Generally, he who occupies the field of battle first and awaits his enemy is at ease; he who comes later to the scene and rushes into the fight is weary.”

John Szabo comments: Well, despite several thousand years’ head start in the wine making department, and even having taught the art to many of the countries that have now become the competition, Greece is definitely late on the scene. There is no remedy for that. The market is already fiercely competitive, and just about every serious exporting country is better, or at least is somewhat organized. Other fringe countries like Portugal or even Austria (a model of organization if there ever was one) are more established in the consumers’ mind this side of the Atlantic then Greece.

ST: “He whose ranks are united in purpose will be victorious”.

JS: Still profoundly true after 2500 years. While the purpose, that is, to sell wine abroad, is certainly common, I am not so sure about the ‘united ranks’ in the Greek wine industry. It is a challenge anywhere in the world to get a group of business people, operating independently, to come together to create a common strategy when ultimately they are in perceived competition with one another. The international wine market, although growing, is still finite and there is only so much market share for obscure wines. The Greeks, notorious free-thinkers and self-styled anarchists, are also very strongly tied to their regional origins. It is micro-chauvinism at its finest. What hails from where you hail is best. There is nothing inherently wrong in this belief, especially in the world of wine where origin is the one unassailable point of difference and potential competitive advantage. But at this point in the development of exports, it should be the underlying theme, not the overarching one.

Chang Yü, ancient commentator on Sun Tzu’s text, says: “Benevolence and righteousness may be used to govern a state but cannot be used to administer an army”.

JS: This could indeed spark a revolution, to suggest that the country that gave democracy to the world should abandon democratic process when it comes to marketing their wines. For an army to be successful in battle, there must be only one general, one chief commander who has the benefit of the full picture, who has designed the ultimate strategy for victory. It is impossible for each rank and file soldier to have a voice; this would lead to confusion and chaos. Greece, like everyone else, needs an independent body such as PRC to come up with a marketing strategy (which they have indeed done), which will ultimately serve the needs of everyone. After Alexander Kouros’ SWOT analysis of the industry at the Thessaloniki symposium, the commentary from the crowd, raising points that were often parochial or even irrelevant, made clear the need to establish one, non-democratic, driving force.

ST: “Anciently the skillful warriors first made themselves invincible and awaited the enemy’s moment of vulnerability”

JS: Here, Greece fares quite well. The dramatic development of the wine industry over the last couple of decades and the impressive rise in overall quality puts Greece in a strong position. No point going out to conquer the world with average quality wines; Greece cannot even compete in the bulk or sub-premium segment – cost of production is simply too high. Chile, South Africa, Argentina… you name it – all can produce better quality wines at the bottom end. Greece’s invincibility lies with the handful of indigenous varieties that have been understood and reworked, some even flirting with perfection. But not all, mind you. There is still tremendous work to do in the vineyards, identifying and propagating the right, virus-free clones, matching rootstocks with soils and regions and cultivars, and then learning how best to vinify the resulting fruit. The ambassador grapes identified by PRC, are, in my view good ones with which to start the campaign. They are distinctive and original and well established, they are produced in sufficient quantity to have an impact internationally and they offer more than a glimpse of the quality and potential of all Greek wines.

And finally, Sun Tzu’s most oft-quoted words: “Therefore I say: “Know the enemy and know yourself; in a hundred battles you will never be in peril. When you are ignorant of the enemy but know yourself, your chances of winning or losing are equal. If ignorant both of your enemy and of yourself, you are certain in every battle to be in peril.”

JS: I believe Greece is in peril. With some notable exceptions, my observation is that many Greeks are neither familiar with the wines available internationally nor even with some of the best wines made in their own country. Europeans in general are noted for being rather insular – just ask a sommelier from Burgundy about his/her favorite wines from Bordeaux or vice-versa, for a bemused raised eyebrow. The Italians call it ‘campanilismo’, where everyone rallies around their own campanile, or Church bell tower that is found in every village (why do you think that there is no single national body for the promotion of Italian wine). Campanilismo is alive and well in Greece, and it discourages winemakers from knowing and understanding what is happening in the rest of the world – a key success factor in any marketing campaign.

Overall, the Greek wine industry faces some serious challenges on the international market that must be addressed before the time comes to roll out their promotional campaign in earnest. Though I think Sun Tzu would agree: the battle is not lost. Greece possesses a wealth of high quality indigenous grape varieties, some of Europe’s best-equipped and most modern wineries, a critical mass of talented winemakers who have made the effort to go and study abroad and familiarize themselves with the competition, a range of climates and soils that in turn offer an impressive palette of stylistic possibilities, a proud tradition that is slowly but surely being revived, and a landscape of breathtaking beauty and positive associations in the minds of travelers. It won’t be easy, and immediate personal gain must be put on hold for the whole of the industry to be able succeed together, which will eventually lead back to personal gain. I, for one, look forward to following the story.

by John Szabo, MS